{"id":19583,"date":"2020-04-29T11:30:27","date_gmt":"2020-04-29T15:30:27","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.isvara.org\/archive\/?p=19583"},"modified":"2022-01-13T15:47:02","modified_gmt":"2022-01-13T20:47:02","slug":"relativism","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.isvara.org\/archive\/relativism\/","title":{"rendered":"Relativism"},"content":{"rendered":"<h1 id=\"firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Relativism \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0#relative, #relativo<\/h1>\n<div id=\"bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n<div id=\"siteSub\" class=\"noprint\">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia<\/div>\n<div id=\"contentSub\">\u00a0<\/div>\n<div id=\"contentSub2\">\u00a0<\/div>\n<div id=\"jump-to-nav\">\u00a0<\/div>\n<p><a class=\"mw-jump-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#mw-head\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Jump to navigation<\/a><a class=\"mw-jump-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#searchInput\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Jump to search<\/a><\/p>\n<div id=\"mw-content-text\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\" dir=\"ltr\" lang=\"en\">\n<div class=\"mw-parser-output\">\n<div class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\" role=\"note\">For the physics theory, see <a title=\"Theory of relativity\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Theory_of_relativity\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Theory of relativity<\/a>.<\/div>\n<table class=\"vertical-navbox nowraplinks\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>Part of a series on<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th><a title=\"Epistemology\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Epistemology\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Epistemology<\/a><\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"navbox-abovebelow\">\n<div class=\"hlist hlist-separated\">\n<ul>\n<li><a title=\"Category:Epistemology\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:Epistemology\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Category<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Index of epistemology articles\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Index_of_epistemology_articles\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Index<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Outline of epistemology\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Outline_of_epistemology\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Outline<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"hlist\">\n<p><b>Core concepts<\/b><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a title=\"Belief\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Belief\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Belief<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Justification (epistemology)\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Justification_(epistemology)\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Justification<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Knowledge\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Knowledge<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Truth\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Truth\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Truth<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"hlist\">\n<hr \/>\n<p><b>Distinctions<\/b><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a title=\"A priori and a posteriori\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/A_priori_and_a_posteriori\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">A priori vs. A posteriori<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Analytic\u2013synthetic distinction\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Analytic vs. Synthetic<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"hlist\">\n<hr \/>\n<p><b>Schools of thought<\/b><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a title=\"Empiricism\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Empiricism\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Empiricism<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Naturalized epistemology\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Naturalized_epistemology\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Naturalism<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Pragmatism\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pragmatism\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Pragmatism<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Rationalism\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rationalism\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Rationalism<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a class=\"mw-selflink selflink\">Relativism<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Philosophical skepticism\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Philosophical_skepticism\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Skepticism<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"hlist\">\n<hr \/>\n<p><b>Topics and views<\/b><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a title=\"Certainty\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Certainty\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Certainty<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Coherentism\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Coherentism\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Coherentism<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Contextualism\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Contextualism\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Contextualism<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Dogmatism\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dogmatism\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Dogmatism<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Experience\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Experience\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Experience<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Fallibilism\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fallibilism\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Fallibilism<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Foundationalism\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Foundationalism\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Foundationalism<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Problem of induction\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Problem_of_induction\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Induction<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Infallibilism\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Infallibilism\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Infallibilism<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Infinitism\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Infinitism\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Infinitism<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Rationality\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rationality\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Rationality<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Reason\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reason\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Reason<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Solipsism\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Solipsism\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Solipsism<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"hlist\">\n<hr \/>\n<p><b>Specialized domains of inquiry<\/b><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a title=\"Evolutionary epistemology\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Evolutionary_epistemology\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Evolutionary epistemology<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Feminist epistemology\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Feminist_epistemology\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Feminist epistemology<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Formal epistemology\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Formal_epistemology\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Formal epistemology<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Metaepistemology\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metaepistemology\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Metaepistemology<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Social epistemology\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Social_epistemology\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Social epistemology<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"hlist\">\n<hr \/>\n<p><b>Notable epistemologists<\/b><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a title=\"Ren\u00e9 Descartes\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Ren\u00e9 Descartes<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Sextus Empiricus\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sextus_Empiricus\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Sextus Empiricus<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Edmund Gettier\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Edmund_Gettier\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Edmund Gettier<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"David Hume\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/David_Hume\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">David Hume<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Immanuel Kant\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Immanuel_Kant\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Immanuel Kant<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Willard Van Orman Quine\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">W. V. O. Quine<\/a><\/li>\n<li><i><a title=\"List of epistemologists\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_epistemologists\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">more&#8230;<\/a><\/i><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"hlist\">\n<hr \/>\n<p><b>Related fields<\/b><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Epistemic logic\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Epistemic_logic\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Epistemic logic<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Philosophy of mind\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Philosophy_of_mind\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Philosophy of mind<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Philosophy of perception\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Philosophy_of_perception\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Philosophy of perception<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Philosophy of science\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Philosophy_of_science\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Philosophy of science<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Bayesian probability\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bayesian_probability\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Probability<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>\n<div class=\"plainlinks hlist navbar mini\">\n<ul>\n<li class=\"nv-view\"><a title=\"Template:Epistemology sidebar\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template:Epistemology_sidebar\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><abbr title=\"View this template\">v<\/abbr><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"nv-talk\"><a title=\"Template talk:Epistemology sidebar\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template_talk:Epistemology_sidebar\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><abbr title=\"Discuss this template\">t<\/abbr><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"nv-edit\"><a class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Template:Epistemology_sidebar&amp;action=edit\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><abbr title=\"Edit this template\">e<\/abbr><\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p><b>Relativism<\/b> is a family of <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Philosophical\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Philosophical\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">philosophical<\/a> views which deny claims to <a title=\"Objectivity (philosophy)\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Objectivity_(philosophy)\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">objectivity<\/a> within a particular domain and assert that facts in that domain are relative to the perspective of an observer or the context in which they are assessed.<sup id=\"cite_ref-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_note-1\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> There are many different forms of relativism, with a great deal of variation in scope and differing degrees of controversy among them.<sup id=\"cite_ref-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_note-2\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> <i><a title=\"Moral relativism\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Moral_relativism\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Moral relativism<\/a><\/i>encompasses the differences in moral judgments among people and cultures.<sup id=\"cite_ref-stanford_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_note-stanford-3\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> <i><a title=\"Epistemology\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Epistemology\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Epistemic relativism<\/a><\/i> holds that there are no absolute facts regarding norms of <a title=\"Belief\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Belief\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">belief<\/a>, <a title=\"Justification (epistemology)\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Justification_(epistemology)\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">justification<\/a>, or <a title=\"Rationality\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rationality\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">rationality<\/a>, and that there are only relative ones.<sup id=\"cite_ref-SEP_Epistemic_Relativism_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_note-SEP_Epistemic_Relativism-4\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">[4]<\/a><\/sup> <i><a title=\"Factual relativism\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Factual_relativism\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Alethic relativism<\/a><\/i> is the doctrine that there are no <a title=\"Universality (philosophy)\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Universality_(philosophy)\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">absolute truths<\/a>, i.e., that truth is always relative to some particular frame of reference, such as a language or a culture (<a title=\"Cultural relativism\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cultural_relativism\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">cultural relativism<\/a>).<sup id=\"cite_ref-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_note-5\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">[5]<\/a><\/sup> Some forms of relativism also bear a resemblance to <a title=\"Philosophical skepticism\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Philosophical_skepticism\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">philosophical skepticism<\/a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_note-6\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">[6]<\/a><\/sup> <i>Descriptive relativism<\/i>seeks to describe the differences among cultures and people without evaluation, while normative relativism evaluates the morality or truthfulness of views within a given framework.<\/p>\n<div id=\"toc\" class=\"toc\" role=\"navigation\" aria-labelledby=\"mw-toc-heading\">\n<div class=\"toctitle\" dir=\"ltr\" lang=\"en\">\n<h2 id=\"mw-toc-heading\">Contents<\/h2>\n<p><label class=\"toctogglelabel\" for=\"toctogglecheckbox\"><\/label><\/div>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"toclevel-1 tocsection-1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#Forms_of_relativism\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">1<\/span><span class=\"toctext\">Forms of relativism<\/span><\/a>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-2\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#Anthropological_versus_philosophical_relativism\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">1.1<\/span><span class=\"toctext\">Anthropological versus philosophical relativism<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-3\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#Descriptive_versus_normative_relativism\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">1.2<\/span><span class=\"toctext\">Descriptive versus normative relativism<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-1 tocsection-4\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#Related_and_contrasting_positions\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">2<\/span><span class=\"toctext\">Related and contrasting positions<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-1 tocsection-5\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#Criticisms\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">3<\/span><span class=\"toctext\">Criticisms<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-1 tocsection-6\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#Views\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">4<\/span><span class=\"toctext\">Views<\/span><\/a>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-7\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#Philosophical\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">4.1<\/span><span class=\"toctext\">Philosophical<\/span><\/a>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"toclevel-3 tocsection-8\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#Ancient\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">4.1.1<\/span><span class=\"toctext\">Ancient<\/span><\/a>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"toclevel-4 tocsection-9\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#Ancient_India\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">4.1.1.1<\/span><span class=\"toctext\">Ancient India<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-4 tocsection-10\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#Sophism\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">4.1.1.2<\/span><span class=\"toctext\">Sophism<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-4 tocsection-11\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#Pyrrhonism\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">4.1.1.3<\/span><span class=\"toctext\">Pyrrhonism<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-3 tocsection-12\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#Modern\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">4.1.2<\/span><span class=\"toctext\">Modern<\/span><\/a>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"toclevel-4 tocsection-13\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#Bernard_Crick\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">4.1.2.1<\/span><span class=\"toctext\">Bernard Crick<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-4 tocsection-14\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#Paul_Feyerabend\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">4.1.2.2<\/span><span class=\"toctext\">Paul Feyerabend<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-4 tocsection-15\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#Thomas_Kuhn\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">4.1.2.3<\/span><span class=\"toctext\">Thomas Kuhn<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-4 tocsection-16\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#George_Lakoff_and_Mark_Johnson\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">4.1.2.4<\/span><span class=\"toctext\">George Lakoff and Mark Johnson<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-4 tocsection-17\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#Robert_Nozick\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">4.1.2.5<\/span><span class=\"toctext\">Robert Nozick<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-4 tocsection-18\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#Joseph_Margolis\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">4.1.2.6<\/span><span class=\"toctext\">Joseph Margolis<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-4 tocsection-19\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#Richard_Rorty\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">4.1.2.7<\/span><span class=\"toctext\">Richard Rorty<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-4 tocsection-20\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#Nalin_de_Silva\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">4.1.2.8<\/span><span class=\"toctext\">Nalin de Silva<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-3 tocsection-21\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#Postmodernism\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">4.1.3<\/span><span class=\"toctext\">Postmodernism<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-22\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#Religious\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">4.2<\/span><span class=\"toctext\">Religious<\/span><\/a>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"toclevel-3 tocsection-23\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#Jainism\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">4.2.1<\/span><span class=\"toctext\">Jainism<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-3 tocsection-24\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#Hinduism\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">4.2.2<\/span><span class=\"toctext\">Hinduism<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-3 tocsection-25\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#Buddhism\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">4.2.3<\/span><span class=\"toctext\">Buddhism<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-3 tocsection-26\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#Sikhism\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">4.2.4<\/span><span class=\"toctext\">Sikhism<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-3 tocsection-27\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#Catholicism\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">4.2.5<\/span><span class=\"toctext\">Catholicism<\/span><\/a>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"toclevel-4 tocsection-28\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#Leo_XIII\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">4.2.5.1<\/span><span class=\"toctext\">Leo XIII<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-4 tocsection-29\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#John_Paul_II\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">4.2.5.2<\/span><span class=\"toctext\">John Paul II<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-4 tocsection-30\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#Benedict_XVI\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">4.2.5.3<\/span><span class=\"toctext\">Benedict XVI<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-1 tocsection-31\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#See_also\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">5<\/span><span class=\"toctext\">See also<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-1 tocsection-32\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#References\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">6<\/span><span class=\"toctext\">References<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-1 tocsection-33\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#Bibliography\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">7<\/span><span class=\"toctext\">Bibliography<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-1 tocsection-34\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#External_links\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">8<\/span><span class=\"toctext\">External links<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span id=\"Forms_of_relativism\" class=\"mw-headline\">Forms of relativism<\/span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[<\/span><a title=\"Edit section: Forms of relativism\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Relativism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">edit<\/a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]<\/span><\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span id=\"Anthropological_versus_philosophical_relativism\" class=\"mw-headline\">Anthropological versus philosophical relativism<\/span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[<\/span><a title=\"Edit section: Anthropological versus philosophical relativism\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Relativism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">edit<\/a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]<\/span><\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Anthropological relativism\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Anthropological_relativism\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Anthropological relativism<\/a> refers to a <a title=\"Methodology\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Methodology\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">methodological<\/a> stance, in which the researcher suspends (or brackets) his or her own cultural prejudice while trying to understand beliefs or behaviors in their contexts. This has become known as <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Methodological relativism\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Methodological_relativism\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">methodological relativism<\/a>, and concerns itself specifically with avoiding <a title=\"Ethnocentrism\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ethnocentrism\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">ethnocentrism<\/a> or the application of one&#8217;s own cultural standards to the assessment of other cultures.<sup id=\"cite_ref-7\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_note-7\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">[7]<\/a><\/sup> This is also the basis of the so-called &#8220;<a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Emic\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Emic\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">emic<\/a>&#8221; and &#8220;<a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Etic\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Etic\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">etic<\/a>&#8221; distinction, in which:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>An <i>emic<\/i> or <i>insider<\/i> account of behavior is a description of a society in terms that are meaningful to the participant or actor&#8217;s own culture; an emic account is therefore culture-specific, and typically refers to what is considered &#8220;<a title=\"Common sense\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Common_sense\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">common sense<\/a>&#8221; within the culture under observation.<\/li>\n<li>An <i>etic<\/i> or outsider account is a description of a society by an observer, in terms that can be applied to other cultures; that is, an etic account is culturally neutral, and typically refers to the conceptual framework of the social scientist. (This is complicated when it is scientific research itself that is under study, or when there is theoretical or terminological disagreement within the social sciences.)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Philosophical relativism, in contrast, asserts that the truth of a proposition depends on the metaphysical, or theoretical frame, or the instrumental method, or the context in which the proposition is expressed, or on the person, groups, or culture who interpret the proposition.<sup id=\"cite_ref-8\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_note-8\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">[8]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n<p>Methodological relativism and philosophical relativism can exist independently from one another, but most anthropologists base their methodological relativism on that of the philosophical variety.<sup id=\"cite_ref-9\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_note-9\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">[9]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n<h3><span id=\"Descriptive_versus_normative_relativism\" class=\"mw-headline\">Descriptive versus normative relativism<\/span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[<\/span><a title=\"Edit section: Descriptive versus normative relativism\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Relativism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">edit<\/a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]<\/span><\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The concept of relativism also has importance both for <a title=\"Philosophy\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Philosophy\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">philosophers<\/a> and for <a title=\"Anthropology\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Anthropology\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">anthropologists<\/a> in another way. In general, anthropologists engage in descriptive relativism (&#8220;how things are&#8221; or &#8220;how things seem&#8221;), whereas philosophers engage in <a title=\"Norm (philosophy)\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Norm_(philosophy)\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">normative<\/a> relativism (&#8220;how things ought to be&#8221;), although there is some overlap (for example, descriptive relativism can pertain to concepts, normative relativism to truth).<\/p>\n<p>Descriptive relativism assumes that certain cultural groups have different modes of thought, standards of reasoning, and so forth, and it is the anthropologist&#8217;s task to describe, but not to evaluate the validity of these principles and practices of a cultural group. It is possible for an anthropologist in his or her fieldwork to be a descriptive relativist about some things that typically concern the philosopher (e.g., ethical principles) but not about others (e.g., logical principles). However, the descriptive relativist&#8217;s empirical claims about epistemic principles, moral ideals and the like are often countered by anthropological arguments that such things are universal, and much of the recent literature on these matters is explicitly concerned with the extent of, and evidence for, cultural or moral or linguistic or human universals.<sup id=\"cite_ref-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_note-10\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">[10]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n<p>The fact that the various species of descriptive relativism are empirical claims, may tempt the philosopher to conclude that they are of little philosophical interest, but there are several reasons why this isn&#8217;t so. First, some philosophers, notably Kant, argue that certain sorts of cognitive differences between human beings (or even all rational beings) are impossible, so such differences could never be found to obtain in fact, an argument that places a priori limits on what empirical inquiry could discover and on what versions of descriptive relativism could be true. Second, claims about actual differences between groups play a central role in some arguments for normative relativism (for example, arguments for normative ethical relativism often begin with claims that different groups in fact have different moral codes or ideals). Finally, the anthropologist&#8217;s descriptive account of relativism helps to separate the fixed aspects of human nature from those that can vary, and so a descriptive claim that some important aspect of experience or thought does (or does not) vary across groups of human beings tells us something important about human nature and the human condition.<\/p>\n<p>Normative relativism concerns normative or <a title=\"Value (ethics)\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Value_(ethics)\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">evaluative<\/a> claims that modes of thought, standards of reasoning, or the like are only right or wrong relative to a framework. \u2018Normative\u2019 is meant in a general sense, applying to a wide range of views; in the case of beliefs, for example, normative correctness equals truth. This does not mean, of course, that framework-relative correctness or truth is always clear, the first challenge being to explain what it amounts to in any given case (e.g., with respect to concepts, truth, epistemic norms). Normative relativism (say, in regard to normative ethical relativism) therefore implies that things (say, ethical claims) are not simply true in themselves, but only have <a title=\"Truth value\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Truth_value\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">truth values<\/a> relative to broader frameworks (say, moral codes). (Many normative ethical relativist arguments run from premises about ethics to conclusions that assert the relativity of truth values, bypassing general claims about the nature of truth, but it is often more illuminating to consider the type of relativism under question directly.)<sup id=\"cite_ref-11\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_note-11\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">[11]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n<h2><span id=\"Related_and_contrasting_positions\" class=\"mw-headline\">Related and contrasting positions<\/span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[<\/span><a title=\"Edit section: Related and contrasting positions\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Relativism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">edit<\/a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]<\/span><\/span><\/h2>\n<p><a title=\"Relational theory\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relational_theory\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Relationism<\/a> is the theory that there are only relations between individual entities, and no intrinsic properties. Despite the similarity in name, it is held by some to be a position distinct from relativism\u2014for instance, because &#8220;statements about relational properties [&#8230;] assert an absolute truth about things in the world&#8221;.<sup id=\"cite_ref-12\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_note-12\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">[12]<\/a><\/sup> On the other hand, others wish to equate relativism, relationism and even <a title=\"Theory of relativity\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Theory_of_relativity\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">relativity<\/a>, which is a precise theory of relationships between physical objects:<sup id=\"cite_ref-13\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_note-13\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">[13]<\/a><\/sup> Nevertheless, &#8220;This confluence of relativity theory with relativism became a strong contributing factor in the increasing prominence of relativism&#8221;.<sup id=\"cite_ref-14\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_note-14\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n<p>Whereas previous investigations of science only sought sociological or psychological explanations of failed scientific theories or pathological science, the &#8216;<a title=\"Strong programme\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Strong_programme\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">strong programme<\/a>&#8216; is more relativistic, assessing scientific truth and falsehood equally in a historic and cultural context.<\/p>\n<h2><span id=\"Criticisms\" class=\"mw-headline\">Criticisms<\/span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[<\/span><a title=\"Edit section: Criticisms\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Relativism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">edit<\/a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]<\/span><\/span><\/h2>\n<p><span id=\"paradox_of_relativism\" class=\"anchor\"><\/span>A common argument<sup id=\"cite_ref-15\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_note-15\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-16\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_note-16\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">[16]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-17\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_note-17\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">[17]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-18\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_note-18\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">[18]<\/a><\/sup> against relativism suggests that it inherently <a title=\"Self-refuting idea\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Self-refuting_idea\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">contradicts, refutes, or stultifies itself<\/a>: the statement &#8220;all is relative&#8221; classes either as a relative statement or as an absolute one. If it is relative, then this statement does not rule out absolutes. If the statement is <a class=\"extiw\" title=\"wikt:absolute\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wiktionary.org\/wiki\/absolute\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">absolute<\/a>, on the other hand, then it provides an example of an absolute statement, proving that not all truths are relative. However, this argument against relativism only applies to relativism that positions truth as relative\u2013i.e. epistemological\/truth-value relativism. More specifically, it is only extreme forms of epistemological relativism that can come in for this criticism as there are many epistemological relativists<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\">[<i><a title=\"Wikipedia:Manual of Style\/Words to watch\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style\/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><span title=\"The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (July 2015)\">who?<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> who posit that some aspects of what is regarded as factually &#8220;true&#8221; are not universal, yet still accept that other universal truths exist (e.g. <a title=\"Gas laws\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gas_laws\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">gas laws<\/a> or moral laws).<\/p>\n<p>Another argument against relativism posits a <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Natural Law\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Natural_Law\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Natural Law<\/a>. Simply put, the physical universe works under basic principles: the &#8220;Laws of Nature&#8221;. Some contend that a natural Moral Law may also exist, for example as argued by <a title=\"Richard Dawkins\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Richard_Dawkins\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Richard Dawkins<\/a> in <i><a title=\"The God Delusion\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_God_Delusion\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">The God Delusion<\/a><\/i> (2006)<sup id=\"cite_ref-19\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_note-19\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">[19]<\/a><\/sup> and addressed by <a title=\"C. S. Lewis\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/C._S._Lewis\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">C. S. Lewis<\/a> in &#8220;<a title=\"Mere Christianity\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mere_Christianity\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Mere Christianity<\/a>&#8221; (1952).<sup id=\"cite_ref-20\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_note-20\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">[20]<\/a><\/sup>Dawkins said &#8220;I think we face an equal but much more sinister challenge from the left, in the shape of cultural relativism &#8211; the view that scientific truth is only one kind of truth and it is not to be especially privileged&#8221;.<sup id=\"cite_ref-21\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_note-21\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">[21]<\/a><\/sup>Philosopher <a title=\"Hilary Putnam\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hilary_Putnam\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Hilary Putnam<\/a>,<sup id=\"cite_ref-22\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_note-22\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">[22]<\/a><\/sup> among others,<sup id=\"cite_ref-23\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_note-23\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">[23]<\/a><\/sup> states that some forms of relativism make it impossible to believe one is in error. If there is no truth beyond an individual&#8217;s <a title=\"Belief\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Belief\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">belief<\/a> that something is true, then an individual cannot hold their own beliefs to be false or mistaken. A related criticism is that relativizing truth to individuals destroys the distinction between truth and belief.<\/p>\n<h2><span id=\"Views\" class=\"mw-headline\">Views<\/span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[<\/span><a title=\"Edit section: Views\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Relativism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=6\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">edit<\/a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]<\/span><\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span id=\"Philosophical\" class=\"mw-headline\">Philosophical<\/span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[<\/span><a title=\"Edit section: Philosophical\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Relativism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=7\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">edit<\/a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]<\/span><\/span><\/h3>\n<h4><span id=\"Ancient\" class=\"mw-headline\">Ancient<\/span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[<\/span><a title=\"Edit section: Ancient\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Relativism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=8\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">edit<\/a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]<\/span><\/span><\/h4>\n<table class=\"vertical-navbox nowraplinks plainlist\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>Part of a <a title=\"Category:Pyrrhonism\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:Pyrrhonism\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">series<\/a> on<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th><a title=\"Pyrrhonism\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pyrrhonism\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Pyrrhonism<\/a><\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a class=\"image\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Balance_scales_drawing.png\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/6\/6c\/Balance_scales_drawing.png\/97px-Balance_scales_drawing.png\" srcset=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/6\/6c\/Balance_scales_drawing.png\/146px-Balance_scales_drawing.png 1.5x, https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/6\/6c\/Balance_scales_drawing.png\/194px-Balance_scales_drawing.png 2x\" alt=\"Balance scales drawing.png\" width=\"97\" height=\"97\" data-file-width=\"1918\" data-file-height=\"1920\" \/><\/a><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>\n<div id=\"NavFrame1\" class=\"NavFrame collapsed\">\n<div class=\"NavHead\">Precursors<a id=\"NavToggle1\" class=\"NavToggle\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">[show]<\/a><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>\n<div id=\"NavFrame2\" class=\"NavFrame collapsed\">\n<div class=\"NavHead\"><a title=\"Pyrrhonism\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pyrrhonism\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Philosophy<\/a><a id=\"NavToggle2\" class=\"NavToggle\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">[show]<\/a><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>\n<div id=\"NavFrame3\" class=\"NavFrame collapsed\">\n<div class=\"NavHead\"><a title=\"Pyrrhonism\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pyrrhonism#List_of_Pyrrhonist_philosophers\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Pyrrhonists<\/a><a id=\"NavToggle3\" class=\"NavToggle\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">[show]<\/a><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>\n<div id=\"NavFrame4\" class=\"NavFrame collapsed\">\n<div class=\"NavHead\">Similar philosophies<a id=\"NavToggle4\" class=\"NavToggle\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">[show]<\/a><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>\n<div id=\"NavFrame5\" class=\"NavFrame collapsed\">\n<div class=\"NavHead\">Contrary philosophies<a id=\"NavToggle5\" class=\"NavToggle\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">[show]<\/a><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a class=\"image\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Socrates.png\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"noviewer\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/c\/cd\/Socrates.png\/10px-Socrates.png\" srcset=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/c\/cd\/Socrates.png\/15px-Socrates.png 1.5x, https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/c\/cd\/Socrates.png\/21px-Socrates.png 2x\" alt=\"Socrates.png\" width=\"10\" height=\"16\" data-file-width=\"326\" data-file-height=\"500\" \/><\/a>\u00a0<a title=\"Portal:Philosophy\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Portal:Philosophy\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Philosophy portal<\/a><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>\n<div class=\"plainlinks hlist navbar mini\">\n<ul>\n<li class=\"nv-view\"><a title=\"Template:Pyrrhonism sidebar\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template:Pyrrhonism_sidebar\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><abbr title=\"View this template\">v<\/abbr><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"nv-talk\"><a title=\"Template talk:Pyrrhonism sidebar\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template_talk:Pyrrhonism_sidebar\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><abbr title=\"Discuss this template\">t<\/abbr><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"nv-edit\"><a class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Template:Pyrrhonism_sidebar&amp;action=edit\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><abbr title=\"Edit this template\">e<\/abbr><\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<h5><span id=\"Ancient_India\" class=\"mw-headline\">Ancient India<\/span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[<\/span><a title=\"Edit section: Ancient India\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Relativism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=9\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">edit<\/a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]<\/span><\/span><\/h5>\n<p>Ancient Indian philosophers <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Mahavira\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mahavira\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Mahavira<\/a> (599-527 BC) and <a title=\"Nagarjuna\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nagarjuna\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Nagarjuna<\/a> (c. 150 \u2013 c. 250 CE) made contributions to the development of philosophy regarding relativism.<sup id=\"cite_ref-24\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_note-24\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">[24]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n<h5><span id=\"Sophism\" class=\"mw-headline\">Sophism<\/span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[<\/span><a title=\"Edit section: Sophism\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Relativism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=10\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">edit<\/a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]<\/span><\/span><\/h5>\n<p><a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Sophists\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sophists\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Sophists<\/a> are considered the founding fathers of relativism in <a title=\"Western philosophy\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Western_philosophy\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Western philosophy<\/a>. Elements of relativism emerged among the <a title=\"Sophist\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sophist\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Sophists<\/a> in the 5th century <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Before Christ\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Before_Christ\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">BC<\/a>. Notably, it was <a title=\"Protagoras\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Protagoras\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Protagoras<\/a> who coined the phrase, &#8220;Man is the measure of all things: of things which are, that they are, and of things which are not, that they are not.&#8221; The thinking of the Sophists is mainly known through their opponent, <a title=\"Plato\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Plato\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Plato<\/a>. In a paraphrase from Plato&#8217;s dialogue <i><a title=\"Protagoras (dialogue)\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Protagoras_(dialogue)\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Protagoras<\/a><\/i>, Protagoras said: &#8220;What is true for you is true for you, and what is true for me is true for me.&#8221;<sup id=\"cite_ref-socratesdialogue_25-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_note-socratesdialogue-25\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">[25]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-26\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_note-26\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">[26]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-27\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_note-27\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">[27]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n<h5><span id=\"Pyrrhonism\" class=\"mw-headline\">Pyrrhonism<\/span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[<\/span><a title=\"Edit section: Pyrrhonism\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Relativism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=11\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">edit<\/a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]<\/span><\/span><\/h5>\n<p><a title=\"Pyrrhonism\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pyrrhonism\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Pyrrhonist<\/a> philosophy views relativity as a reason for <a title=\"Philosophical skepticism\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Philosophical_skepticism\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">philosophical skepticism<\/a>, as it is one of the reasons that <a title=\"Acatalepsy\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Acatalepsy\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">truth cannot be grasped<\/a>. All <a title=\"Phantasiai\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Phantasiai\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">perception<\/a> is relative to a perceiver, and perception differs according to position. Hence, no particular perception can be judged as representing the truth about what is perceived. Arguments from relativity form the basis of <a title=\"Trope (philosophy)\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Trope_(philosophy)\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">trope<\/a> 8 of the <a title=\"Pyrrhonism\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pyrrhonism#The_ten_modes_of_Aenesidemus\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">ten modes<\/a> of <a title=\"Aenesidemus\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aenesidemus\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Aenesidemus<\/a> and trope 3 of the <a title=\"Pyrrhonism\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pyrrhonism#The_five_modes_of_Agrippa\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">five modes<\/a> of <a title=\"Agrippa the Skeptic\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Agrippa_the_Skeptic\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Agrippa<\/a>.<\/p>\n<h4><span id=\"Modern\" class=\"mw-headline\">Modern<\/span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[<\/span><a title=\"Edit section: Modern\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Relativism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=12\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">edit<\/a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]<\/span><\/span><\/h4>\n<h5><span id=\"Bernard_Crick\" class=\"mw-headline\">Bernard Crick<\/span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[<\/span><a title=\"Edit section: Bernard Crick\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Relativism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=13\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">edit<\/a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]<\/span><\/span><\/h5>\n<p><a title=\"Bernard Crick\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bernard_Crick\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Bernard Crick<\/a>, a British political scientist and advocate of relativism, wrote the book <i>In Defence of Politics<\/i> (first published in 1962), suggesting the inevitability of moral conflict between people. Crick stated that only <a title=\"Ethics\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ethics\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">ethics<\/a> could resolve such conflict, and when that occurred in public it resulted in <a title=\"Politics\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Politics\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">politics<\/a>. Accordingly, Crick saw the process of <a title=\"Dispute resolution\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dispute_resolution\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">dispute resolution<\/a>, <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Harms reduction\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Harms_reduction\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">harms reduction<\/a>, <a title=\"Mediation\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mediation\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">mediation<\/a> or <a title=\"Peacemaking\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Peacemaking\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">peacemaking<\/a> as central to all of moral philosophy. He became an important influence on the <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Feminists\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Feminists\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">feminists<\/a> and later on the <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Green movement\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Green_movement\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Greens<\/a>.<\/p>\n<h5><span id=\"Paul_Feyerabend\" class=\"mw-headline\">Paul Feyerabend<\/span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[<\/span><a title=\"Edit section: Paul Feyerabend\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Relativism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=14\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">edit<\/a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]<\/span><\/span><\/h5>\n<p>The philosopher of science <a title=\"Paul Feyerabend\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Paul_Feyerabend\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Paul Feyerabend<\/a> is often considered to be a relativist, though he denied being one.<sup id=\"cite_ref-28\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_note-28\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">[28]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n<p>Feyerabend argued that modern science suffers from being methodologically monistic (the belief that only a single methodology can produce <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Scientific progress\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Scientific_progress\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">scientific progress<\/a>).<sup id=\"cite_ref-29\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_note-29\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">[29]<\/a><\/sup> Feyerabend summarises his case in his work <a title=\"Against Method\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Against_Method\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Against Method<\/a>with the phrase &#8220;anything goes&#8221;.<sup id=\"cite_ref-30\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_note-30\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">[30]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n<dl>\n<dd>In an aphorism [Feyerabend] often repeated, &#8220;potentially every culture is all cultures&#8221;. This is intended to convey that world views are not hermetically closed, since their leading concepts have an &#8220;ambiguity&#8221; &#8211; better, an open-endedness &#8211; which enables people from other cultures to engage with them. [&#8230;] It follows that relativism, understood as the doctrine that truth is relative to closed systems, can get no purchase. [&#8230;] For Feyerabend, both hermetic relativism and its absolutist rival [realism] serve, in their different ways, to &#8220;devalue human existence&#8221;. The former encourages that unsavoury brand of political correctness which takes the refusal to criticise &#8220;other cultures&#8221; to the extreme of condoning murderous dictatorship and barbaric practices. The latter, especially in its favoured contemporary form of &#8220;scientific realism&#8221;, with the excessive prestige it affords to the abstractions of &#8220;the monster &#8216;science'&#8221;, is in bed with a politics which likewise disdains variety, richness and everyday individuality &#8211; a politics which likewise &#8220;hides&#8221; its norms behind allegedly neutral facts, &#8220;blunts choices and imposes laws&#8221;.<sup id=\"cite_ref-31\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_note-31\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<h5><span id=\"Thomas_Kuhn\" class=\"mw-headline\">Thomas Kuhn<\/span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[<\/span><a title=\"Edit section: Thomas Kuhn\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Relativism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=15\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">edit<\/a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]<\/span><\/span><\/h5>\n<p><a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Thomas Samuel Kuhn\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Thomas_Samuel_Kuhn\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Thomas Kuhn<\/a>&#8216;s philosophy of science, as expressed in <i><a title=\"The Structure of Scientific Revolutions\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">The Structure of Scientific Revolutions<\/a><\/i> is often interpreted as relativistic. He claimed that as well as progressing steadily and incrementally (&#8220;<a title=\"Normal science\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Normal_science\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">normal science<\/a>&#8220;), science undergoes periodic revolutions or &#8220;<a title=\"Paradigm shift\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Paradigm_shift\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">paradigm shifts<\/a>&#8220;, leaving scientists working in different paradigms with difficulty in even communicating. Thus the truth of a claim, or the existence of a posited entity is relative to the paradigm employed. However, it isn&#8217;t necessary for him to embrace relativism because every paradigm presupposes the prior, building upon itself through history and so on. This leads to there being a fundamental, incremental, and referential structure of development which is not relative but again, fundamental.<\/p>\n<dl>\n<dd>From these remarks, one thing is however certain: Kuhn is not saying that incommensurable theories cannot be compared &#8211; what they can\u2019t be is compared in terms of a system of common measure. He very plainly says that they can be compared, and he reiterates this repeatedly in later work, in a (mostly in vain) effort to avert the crude and sometimes catastrophic misinterpretations he suffered from mainstream philosophers and post-modern relativists alike.<sup id=\"cite_ref-32\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_note-32\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">[32]<\/a><\/sup><\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<p>But Thomas Kuhn denied the accusation of being a relativist later in his postscript.<\/p>\n<dl>\n<dd>scientific development is &#8230; a unidirectional and irreversible process. Latter scientific theories are better than earlier ones for solving puzzles &#8230; That is not a relativist&#8217;s position, and it displays the sense in which I am a convinced believer in scientific progress.<sup id=\"cite_ref-33\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_note-33\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">[33]<\/a><\/sup><\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<p>Some have argued that one can also read Kuhn&#8217;s work as essentially positivist in its ontology: the revolutions he posits are epistemological, lurching toward a presumably &#8216;better&#8217; understanding of an objective reality through the lens presented by the new paradigm. However, a number of passages in Structures do indeed appear to be distinctly relativist, and to directly challenge the notion of an objective reality and the ability of science to progress towards an ever-greater grasp of it, particularly through the process of paradigm change.<\/p>\n<dl>\n<dd>In the sciences there need not be progress of another sort. We may, to be more precise, have to relinquish the notion, explicit or implicit, that changes of paradigm carry scientists and those who learn from them closer and closer to the truth.<sup id=\"cite_ref-34\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_note-34\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">[34]<\/a><\/sup><\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl>\n<dd>We are all deeply accustomed to seeing science as the one enterprise that draws constantly nearer to some goal set by nature in advance. But need there be any such goal? Can we not account for both science\u2019s existence and its success in terms of evolution from the community\u2019s state of knowledge at any given time? Does it really help to imagine that there is some one full, objective, true account of nature and that the proper measure of scientific achievement is the extent to which it brings us closer to that ultimate goal?<sup id=\"cite_ref-35\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_note-35\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">[35]<\/a><\/sup><\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<h5><span id=\"George_Lakoff_and_Mark_Johnson\" class=\"mw-headline\">George Lakoff and Mark Johnson<\/span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[<\/span><a title=\"Edit section: George Lakoff and Mark Johnson\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Relativism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=16\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">edit<\/a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]<\/span><\/span><\/h5>\n<p><a title=\"George Lakoff\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/George_Lakoff\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">George Lakoff<\/a> and <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Mark Johnson (professor)\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mark_Johnson_(professor)\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Mark Johnson<\/a> define relativism in their book <i><a title=\"Metaphors We Live By\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metaphors_We_Live_By\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Metaphors We Live By<\/a><\/i> as the rejection of both <a title=\"Subjectivism\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Subjectivism\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">subjectivism<\/a> and <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Metaphysical realism\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metaphysical_realism\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">metaphysical objectivism<\/a> in order to focus on the relationship between them, i.e. the <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Metaphors\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metaphors\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">metaphor<\/a> by which we relate our current experience to our previous experience. In particular, Lakoff and Johnson characterize &#8220;objectivism&#8221; as a &#8220;<a title=\"Straw man\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Straw_man\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">straw man<\/a>&#8220;, and, to a lesser degree, criticize the views of <a title=\"Karl Popper\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Karl_Popper\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Karl Popper<\/a>, <a title=\"Immanuel Kant\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Immanuel_Kant\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Kant<\/a> and <a title=\"Aristotle\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aristotle\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Aristotle<\/a>.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\">[<i><a title=\"Wikipedia:Citing sources\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citing_sources\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><span title=\"This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (September 2010)\">page\u00a0needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup><\/p>\n<h5><span id=\"Robert_Nozick\" class=\"mw-headline\">Robert Nozick<\/span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[<\/span><a title=\"Edit section: Robert Nozick\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Relativism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=17\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">edit<\/a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]<\/span><\/span><\/h5>\n<p>In his book <i><a title=\"Invariances\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Invariances\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Invariances<\/a><\/i>, <a title=\"Robert Nozick\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Robert_Nozick\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Robert Nozick<\/a> expresses a complex set of theories about the absolute and the relative. He thinks the absolute\/relative distinction should be recast in terms of an invariant\/variant distinction, where there are many things a proposition can be invariant with regard to or vary with. He thinks it is coherent for truth to be relative, and speculates that it might vary with time. He thinks necessity is an unobtainable notion, but can be approximated by robust invariance across a variety of conditions\u2014although we can never identify a proposition that is invariant with regard to everything. Finally, he is not particularly warm to one of the most famous forms of relativism, <a title=\"Moral relativism\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Moral_relativism\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">moral relativism<\/a>, preferring an evolutionary account.<\/p>\n<h5><span id=\"Joseph_Margolis\" class=\"mw-headline\">Joseph Margolis<\/span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[<\/span><a title=\"Edit section: Joseph Margolis\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Relativism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=18\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">edit<\/a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]<\/span><\/span><\/h5>\n<p><a title=\"Joseph Margolis\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Joseph_Margolis\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Joseph Margolis<\/a> advocates a view he calls &#8220;robust relativism&#8221; and defends it in his books: <i>Historied Thought, Constructed World<\/i>, Chapter 4 (California, 1995) and <i>The Truth about Relativism<\/i> (Blackwells, 1991). He opens his account by stating that our logics should depend on what we take to be the nature of the sphere to which we wish to apply our logics. Holding that there can be no distinctions which are not &#8220;privileged&#8221; between the <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Alethic possibility\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alethic_possibility\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">alethic<\/a>, the <a title=\"Ontic\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ontic\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">ontic<\/a>, and the <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Epistemic\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Epistemic\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">epistemic<\/a>, he maintains that a <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Many valued logic\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Many_valued_logic\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">many valued logic<\/a> just might be the most apt for <a title=\"Aesthetics\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aesthetics\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">aesthetics<\/a> or <a title=\"History\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/History\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">history<\/a>since, because in these practices, we are loath to hold to simple <a title=\"Principle of bivalence\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Principle_of_bivalence\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">binary logic<\/a>; and he also holds that many-valued logic is relativistic. (This is perhaps an unusual definition of &#8220;relativistic&#8221;. Compare with his comments on &#8220;relationism&#8221;). &#8220;True&#8221; and &#8220;False&#8221; as mutually exclusive and exhaustive judgements on <a title=\"Hamlet\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hamlet\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Hamlet<\/a>, for instance, really does seem absurd. A many valued logic\u2014&#8221;apt&#8221;, &#8220;reasonable&#8221;, &#8220;likely&#8221;, and so on\u2014seems intuitively more applicable to Hamlet interpretation. Where apparent contradictions arise between such interpretations, we might call the interpretations &#8220;incongruent&#8221;, rather than dubbing either &#8220;false&#8221;, because using many-valued logic implies that a measured value is a mixture of two extreme possibilities. Using the subset of many-valued logic, <a title=\"Fuzzy logic\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fuzzy_logic\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">fuzzy logic<\/a>, it can be said that various interpretations can be represented by membership in more than one possible truth sets simultaneously. Fuzzy logic is therefore probably the best mathematical structure for understanding &#8220;robust relativism&#8221; and has been interpreted by <a title=\"Bart Kosko\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bart_Kosko\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Bart Kosko<\/a> as philosophically being related to Zen Buddhism.<\/p>\n<p>It was <a title=\"Aristotle\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aristotle\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Aristotle<\/a> who held that relativism implied we should, sticking with appearances only, end up contradicting ourselves somewhere if we could apply all attributes to all <i>ousiai<\/i> (<a title=\"Being\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Being\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">beings<\/a>). Aristotle, however, made non-contradiction dependent upon his <a title=\"Essentialism\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Essentialism\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">essentialism<\/a>. If his essentialism is false, then so too is his ground for disallowing relativism. (Subsequent philosophers have found other reasons for supporting the principle of non-contradiction).<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\">[<i><a title=\"Wikipedia:Please clarify\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Please_clarify\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><span title=\"The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (December 2012)\">clarification needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup><\/p>\n<p>Beginning with <a title=\"Protagoras\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Protagoras\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Protagoras<\/a> and invoking <a title=\"Charles Sanders Peirce\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Charles_Sanders_Peirce\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Charles Sanders Peirce<\/a>, Margolis shows that the historic struggle to discredit relativism is an attempt to impose an unexamined belief in the world&#8217;s essentially rigid rule-like nature. Plato and Aristotle merely attacked &#8220;relationalism&#8221;\u2014the doctrine of true-for l or true for k, and the like, where l and k are different speakers or different worlds, or the something similar (Most philosophers would call this position &#8220;relativism&#8221;). For Margolis, &#8220;true&#8221; means true; that is, the alethic use of &#8220;true&#8221; remains untouched. However, in real world contexts, and context is ubiquitous in the real world, we must apply truth values. Here, in epistemic terms, we<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\">[<i><a title=\"Wikipedia:Manual of Style\/Words to watch\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style\/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><span title=\"The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (July 2011)\">who?<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> might retire &#8220;true&#8221; <i>tout court<\/i> as an evaluation and keep &#8220;false&#8221;. The rest of our value-judgements could be graded from &#8220;extremely plausible&#8221; down to &#8220;false&#8221;. Judgements which on a bivalent logic would be incompatible or contradictory are further seen as &#8220;incongruent&#8221;, though one may well have more weight than the other. In short, relativistic logic is not, or need not be, the bugbear it is often presented to be. It may simply be the best type of logic to apply to certain very uncertain spheres of real experiences in the world (although some sort of logic needs to be applied to make that judgement). Those who swear by <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Bivalent logic\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bivalent_logic\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">bivalent logic<\/a> might simply be the ultimate keepers of the great fear of the flux.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\">[<i><a title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2011)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup><\/p>\n<h5><span id=\"Richard_Rorty\" class=\"mw-headline\">Richard Rorty<\/span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[<\/span><a title=\"Edit section: Richard Rorty\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Relativism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=19\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">edit<\/a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]<\/span><\/span><\/h5>\n<p>Philosopher <a title=\"Richard Rorty\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Richard_Rorty\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Richard Rorty<\/a> has a somewhat <a title=\"Paradox\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Paradox\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">paradoxical<\/a> role in the debate over relativism: he is criticized for his relativistic views by many commentators, but has always denied that relativism applies to much anybody, being nothing more than a Platonic scarecrow. Rorty claims, rather, that he is a <a title=\"Pragmatism\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pragmatism\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">pragmatist<\/a>, and that to construe pragmatism as relativism is to <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Beg the question\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Beg_the_question\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">beg the question<\/a>.<\/p>\n<dl>\n<dd>&#8216;&#8221;Relativism&#8221; is the traditional epithet applied to pragmatism by realists&#8217;<sup id=\"cite_ref-36\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_note-36\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">[36]<\/a><\/sup><\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl>\n<dd>&#8216;&#8221;Relativism&#8221; is the view that every belief on a certain topic, or perhaps about any topic, is as good as every other. No one holds this view. Except for the occasional cooperative freshman, one cannot find anybody who says that two incompatible opinions on an important topic are equally good. The philosophers who get called &#8216;relativists&#8217; are those who say that the grounds for choosing between such opinions are less algorithmic than had been thought.&#8217;<sup id=\"cite_ref-37\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_note-37\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">[37]<\/a><\/sup><\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl>\n<dd>&#8216;In short, my strategy for escaping the self-referential difficulties into which &#8220;the Relativist&#8221; keeps getting himself is to move everything over from epistemology and metaphysics into cultural politics, from claims to knowledge and appeals to self-evidence to suggestions about what we should try.&#8217;<sup id=\"cite_ref-38\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_note-38\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">[38]<\/a><\/sup><\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<p>Rorty takes a <a title=\"Deflationary theory of truth\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deflationary_theory_of_truth\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">deflationary<\/a> attitude to <a title=\"Truth\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Truth\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">truth<\/a>, believing there is nothing of interest to be said about truth in general, including the contention that it is generally subjective. He also argues that the notion of <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Theory of justification\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Theory_of_justification\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">warrant<\/a> or justification can do most of the work traditionally assigned to the concept of truth, and that justification <i>is<\/i> relative; justification is justification to an audience, for Rorty.<\/p>\n<p>In <i><a title=\"Contingency, Irony, and Solidarity\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Contingency,_Irony,_and_Solidarity\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Contingency, Irony, and Solidarity<\/a><\/i> he argues that the debate between so-called relativists and so-called objectivists is beside the point because they don&#8217;t have enough premises in common for either side to prove anything to the other.<\/p>\n<h5><span id=\"Nalin_de_Silva\" class=\"mw-headline\">Nalin de Silva<\/span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[<\/span><a title=\"Edit section: Nalin de Silva\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Relativism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=20\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">edit<\/a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]<\/span><\/span><\/h5>\n<p>In his book <i>Mage Lokaya<\/i> (My World), 1986, <a title=\"Nalin de Silva\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nalin_de_Silva\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Nalin de Silva<\/a> criticized the basis of the established western system of knowledge, and its propagation, which he refers as &#8220;domination throughout the world&#8221;.He explained in this book that mind independent reality is impossible and knowledge is not found but constructed. Further he has introduced and developed the concept of &#8220;Constructive Relativism&#8221; as the basis on which knowledge is constructed relative to the sense organs, culture and the mind completely based on <a title=\"Avidy\u0101 (Buddhism)\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Avidy%C4%81_(Buddhism)\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Avidya<\/a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-39\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_note-39\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">[39]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n<h4><span id=\"Postmodernism\" class=\"mw-headline\">Postmodernism<\/span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[<\/span><a title=\"Edit section: Postmodernism\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Relativism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=21\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">edit<\/a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]<\/span><\/span><\/h4>\n<p>The term &#8220;relativism&#8221; often comes up in debates over <a title=\"Postmodernism\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Postmodernism\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">postmodernism<\/a>, <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Poststructuralism\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Poststructuralism\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">poststructuralism<\/a> and <a title=\"Phenomenology (philosophy)\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Phenomenology_(philosophy)\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">phenomenology<\/a>. Critics of these perspectives often identify advocates with the label &#8220;relativism&#8221;. For example, the <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Sapir\u2013Whorf hypothesis\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sapir%E2%80%93Whorf_hypothesis\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Sapir\u2013Whorf hypothesis<\/a> is often considered a relativist view because it posits that linguistic categories and structures shape the way people view the world. <a title=\"Stanley Fish\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stanley_Fish\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Stanley Fish<\/a> has defended postmodernism and relativism.<sup id=\"cite_ref-40\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_note-40\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">[40]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n<p>These perspectives do not strictly count as relativist in the philosophical sense, because they express agnosticism on the nature of reality and make <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Epistemological\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Epistemological\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">epistemological<\/a> rather than <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Ontological\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ontological\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">ontological<\/a> claims. Nevertheless, the term is useful to differentiate them from <a title=\"Philosophical realism\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Philosophical_realism\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">realists<\/a> who believe that the purpose of philosophy, science, or literary critique is to locate externally true meanings. Important philosophers and theorists such as <a title=\"Michel Foucault\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Michel_Foucault\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Michel Foucault<\/a>, <a title=\"Max Stirner\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Max_Stirner\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Max Stirner<\/a>, political movements such as <a title=\"Post-anarchism\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Post-anarchism\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">post-anarchism<\/a> or <a title=\"Post-Marxism\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Post-Marxism\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">post-Marxism<\/a> can also be considered as relativist in this sense &#8211; though a better term might be <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Social constructivist\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Social_constructivist\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">social constructivist<\/a>.<\/p>\n<p>The spread and popularity of this kind of &#8220;soft&#8221; relativism varies between academic disciplines. It has wide support in <a title=\"Anthropology\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Anthropology\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">anthropology<\/a> and has a majority following in cultural studies. It also has advocates in political theory and political science, sociology, and <a title=\"Continental philosophy\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Continental_philosophy\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">continental philosophy<\/a> (as distinct from Anglo-American analytical philosophy). It has inspired empirical studies of the social construction of meaning such as those associated with labelling theory, which defenders can point to as evidence of the validity of their theories (albeit risking accusations of <a title=\"Performative contradiction\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Performative_contradiction\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">performative contradiction<\/a> in the process). Advocates of this kind of relativism often also claim that recent developments in the natural sciences, such as Heisenberg&#8217;s <a title=\"Uncertainty principle\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Uncertainty_principle\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">uncertainty principle<\/a>, <a title=\"Quantum mechanics\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quantum_mechanics\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">quantum mechanics<\/a>, <a title=\"Chaos theory\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chaos_theory\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">chaos theory<\/a> and <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Complex systems\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Complex_systems\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">complexity theory<\/a> show that science is now becoming relativistic. However, many scientists who use these methods continue to identify as realist or <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Post-positivist\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Post-positivist\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">post-positivist<\/a>, and some sharply criticize the association.<sup id=\"cite_ref-41\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_note-41\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">[41]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-42\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_note-42\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">[42]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n<h3><span id=\"Religious\" class=\"mw-headline\">Religious<\/span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[<\/span><a title=\"Edit section: Religious\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Relativism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=22\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">edit<\/a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]<\/span><\/span><\/h3>\n<h4><span id=\"Jainism\" class=\"mw-headline\">Jainism<\/span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[<\/span><a title=\"Edit section: Jainism\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Relativism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=23\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">edit<\/a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]<\/span><\/span><\/h4>\n<p><a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Mahavira\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mahavira\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Mahavira<\/a> (599-527 BC), the 24th <a title=\"Tirthankara\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tirthankara\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Tirthankara<\/a> of <a title=\"Jainism\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Jainism\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Jainism<\/a>, developed an early philosophy regarding relativism and <a title=\"Subjectivism\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Subjectivism\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">subjectivism<\/a> known as <a title=\"Anekantavada\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Anekantavada\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Anekantavada<\/a>.<\/p>\n<h4><span id=\"Hinduism\" class=\"mw-headline\">Hinduism<\/span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[<\/span><a title=\"Edit section: Hinduism\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Relativism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=24\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">edit<\/a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]<\/span><\/span><\/h4>\n<p><a title=\"Hinduism\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hinduism\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Hindu religion<\/a> has no theological difficulties in accepting degrees of truth in other religions. A <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Rig Veda\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rig_Veda\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Rig Vedic<\/a> hymn states that &#8220;Truth is One, though the sages tell it variously.&#8221; (\u00c9kam sat vipra bahud\u0101 vadanti)<\/p>\n<h4><span id=\"Buddhism\" class=\"mw-headline\">Buddhism<\/span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[<\/span><a title=\"Edit section: Buddhism\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Relativism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=25\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">edit<\/a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]<\/span><\/span><\/h4>\n<p><a title=\"Madhyamaka\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Madhyamaka\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Madhyamaka Buddhism<\/a>, which forms the basis for many <a title=\"Mahayana\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mahayana\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Mahayana<\/a> Buddhist schools and which was founded by <a title=\"Nagarjuna\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nagarjuna\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Nagarjuna<\/a>. N\u0101g\u0101rjuna taught the idea of relativity. In the Ratn\u0101val\u012b, he gives the example that shortness exists only in relation to the idea of length. The determination of a thing or object is only possible in relation to other things or objects, especially by way of contrast. He held that the relationship between the ideas of &#8220;short&#8221; and &#8220;long&#8221; is not due to intrinsic nature (<a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Svabh\u0101va\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Svabh%C4%81va\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">svabh\u0101va<\/a>). This idea is also found in the Pali Nik\u0101yas and Chinese \u0100gamas, in which the idea of relativity is expressed similarly: &#8220;That which is the element of light &#8230; is seen to exist on account of [in relation to] darkness; that which is the element of good is seen to exist on account of bad; that which is the element of space is seen to exist on account of form.&#8221;<sup id=\"cite_ref-43\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_note-43\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">[43]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n<p>Madhyamaka Buddhism discerns two levels of truth, absolute and relative. The <a title=\"Two truths doctrine\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Two_truths_doctrine\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">two truths doctrine<\/a> states that there is <i>Relative<\/i> or common-sense truth, which describes our daily experience of a concrete world, and <i>Ultimate<\/i> truth, which describes the ultimate reality as <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Sunyata\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sunyata\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">sunyata<\/a>, empty of concrete and inherent characteristics. The conventional truth may be interpreted as &#8220;obscurative truth&#8221; or &#8220;that which obscures the true nature&#8221; as a result. It is constituted by the appearances of mistaken awareness. Conventional truth would be the appearance that includes a duality of apprehender and apprehended, and objects perceived within that. Ultimate truths, are phenomena free from the duality of apprehender and apprehended.<sup id=\"cite_ref-LevinsonAug06_44-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_note-LevinsonAug06-44\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">[44]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n<h4><span id=\"Sikhism\" class=\"mw-headline\">Sikhism<\/span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[<\/span><a title=\"Edit section: Sikhism\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Relativism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=26\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">edit<\/a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]<\/span><\/span><\/h4>\n<p>In <a title=\"Sikhism\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sikhism\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Sikhism<\/a> the <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Sikh Gurus\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sikh_Gurus\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Gurus<\/a> (spiritual teacher ) have propagated the message of &#8220;many paths&#8221; leading to the <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Ek Onkar\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ek_Onkar\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">one God<\/a>and ultimate <a title=\"Salvation\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Salvation\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">salvation<\/a> for all souls who tread on the path of <a title=\"Righteousness\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Righteousness\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">righteousness<\/a>. They have supported the view that proponents of all faiths can, by doing good and virtuous deeds and by remembering the <a title=\"Lord\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lord\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Lord<\/a>, certainly achieve salvation. The students of the Sikh faith are told to accept all leading faiths as possible vehicles for attaining spiritual enlightenment provided the faithful study, ponder and practice the teachings of their prophets and leaders. The holy book of the <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Sikh\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sikh\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Sikhs<\/a> called the <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Sri Guru Granth Sahib\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sri_Guru_Granth_Sahib\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Sri Guru Granth Sahib<\/a> says: &#8220;Do not say that the Vedas, the Bible and the Koran are false. Those who do not contemplate them are false.&#8221; <a title=\"Guru Granth Sahib\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Guru_Granth_Sahib\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Guru Granth Sahib<\/a> page 1350;<sup id=\"cite_ref-45\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_note-45\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">[45]<\/a><\/sup> later stating &#8220;The seconds, minutes, and hours, days, weeks and months, and the various seasons originate from the one Sun; O nanak, in just the same way, the many forms originate from the Creator.&#8221; <a title=\"Guru Granth Sahib\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Guru_Granth_Sahib\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Guru Granth Sahib<\/a> page 12,13.<\/p>\n<h4><span id=\"Catholicism\" class=\"mw-headline\">Catholicism<\/span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[<\/span><a title=\"Edit section: Catholicism\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Relativism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=27\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">edit<\/a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]<\/span><\/span><\/h4>\n<p>The <a title=\"Catholic Church\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Catholic_Church\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Catholic Church<\/a>, especially under <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"John Paul II\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/John_Paul_II\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">John Paul II<\/a> and <a title=\"Pope Benedict XVI\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pope_Benedict_XVI\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Pope Benedict XVI<\/a>, has identified relativism as one of the most significant problems for faith and morals today.<sup id=\"cite_ref-46\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_note-46\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">[46]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n<p>According to the Church and to some theologians, relativism, as a denial of absolute truth, leads to moral license and a denial of the possibility of <a title=\"Sin\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sin\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">sin<\/a> and of <a title=\"God\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/God\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">God<\/a>. Whether moral or epistemological, relativism constitutes a denial of the capacity of the human mind and reason to arrive at truth. Truth, according to Catholic theologians and philosophers (following Aristotle) consists of <i>adequatio rei et intellectus<\/i>, the <a title=\"Correspondence theory of truth\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Correspondence_theory_of_truth\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">correspondence<\/a> of the mind and reality. Another way of putting it states that the <a title=\"Mind\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mind\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">mind<\/a> has the same form as reality. This means when the form of the computer in front of someone (the type, color, shape, capacity, etc.) is also the form that is in their mind, then what they know is true because their mind corresponds to objective reality.<\/p>\n<p>The denial of an absolute reference, of an <i>axis mundi,<\/i> denies God, who equates to Absolute Truth, according to these Christian theologians. They link relativism to <a title=\"Secularism\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Secularism\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">secularism<\/a>, an obstruction of religion in <a title=\"Human condition\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Human_condition\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">human life.<\/a><\/p>\n<h5><span id=\"Leo_XIII\" class=\"mw-headline\">Leo XIII<\/span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[<\/span><a title=\"Edit section: Leo XIII\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Relativism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=28\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">edit<\/a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]<\/span><\/span><\/h5>\n<p><a title=\"Pope Leo XIII\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pope_Leo_XIII\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Pope Leo XIII<\/a> (1810\u20131903) was the first known Pope to use the word relativism in the encyclical <i><a title=\"Humanum genus\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Humanum_genus\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Humanum genus<\/a><\/i>(1884). Leo XIII condemned <a title=\"Freemasonry\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Freemasonry\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Freemasonry<\/a> and claimed that its philosophical and political system was largely based on relativism.<sup id=\"cite_ref-47\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_note-47\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">[47]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n<h5><span id=\"John_Paul_II\" class=\"mw-headline\">John Paul II<\/span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[<\/span><a title=\"Edit section: John Paul II\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Relativism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=29\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">edit<\/a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]<\/span><\/span><\/h5>\n<p><a title=\"Pope John Paul II\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pope_John_Paul_II\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">John Paul II<\/a> in <i><a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Veritatis Splendor\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Veritatis_Splendor\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Veritatis Splendor<\/a><\/i><\/p>\n<dl>\n<dd>As is immediately evident, the crisis of truth is not unconnected with this development. Once the idea of a universal truth about the good, knowable by human reason, is lost, inevitably the notion of conscience also changes. Conscience is no longer considered in its primordial reality as an act of a person&#8217;s intelligence, the function of which is to apply the universal knowledge of the good in a specific situation and thus to express a judgment about the right conduct to be chosen here and now. Instead, there is a tendency to grant to the individual conscience the prerogative of independently determining the criteria of good and evil and then acting accordingly. Such an outlook is quite congenial to an individualist ethic, wherein each individual is faced with his own truth, different from the truth of others. Taken to its extreme consequences, this individualism leads to a denial of the very idea of human nature.<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<p>In <i><a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Evangelium Vitae\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Evangelium_Vitae\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Evangelium Vitae<\/a><\/i> (The Gospel of Life), he says:<\/p>\n<dl>\n<dd>Freedom negates and destroys itself, and becomes a factor leading to the destruction of others, when it no longer recognizes and respects its essential link with the truth. When freedom, out of a desire to emancipate itself from all forms of tradition and authority, shuts out even the most obvious evidence of an objective and universal truth, which is the foundation of personal and social life, then the person ends up by no longer taking as the sole and indisputable point of reference for his own choices the truth about good and evil, but only his subjective and changeable opinion or, indeed, his selfish interest and whim.<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<h5><span id=\"Benedict_XVI\" class=\"mw-headline\">Benedict XVI<\/span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[<\/span><a title=\"Edit section: Benedict XVI\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Relativism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=30\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">edit<\/a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]<\/span><\/span><\/h5>\n<p>In April 2005, in his homily<sup id=\"cite_ref-48\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_note-48\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">[48]<\/a><\/sup> during Mass prior to the conclave which would elect him as <a title=\"Pope\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pope\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Pope<\/a>, then <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cardinal_Joseph_Ratzinger\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger<\/a> talked about the world &#8220;moving towards a dictatorship of relativism&#8221;:<\/p>\n<dl>\n<dd>How many winds of doctrine we have known in recent decades, how many ideological currents, how many ways of thinking. The small boat of thought of many Christians has often been tossed about by these waves \u2013 thrown from one extreme to the other: from Marxism to liberalism, even to libertinism; from collectivism to radical individualism; from atheism to a vague religious mysticism; from agnosticism to syncretism, and so forth. Every day new sects are created and what <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Saint Paul\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Saint_Paul\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Saint Paul<\/a> says about human trickery comes true, with cunning which tries to draw those into error (cf <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Ephesians\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ephesians\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Ephesians<\/a> 4, 14). Having a clear Faith, based on the Creed of the Church, is often labeled today as a fundamentalism. Whereas, relativism, which is letting oneself be tossed and &#8220;swept along by every wind of teaching&#8221;, looks like the only attitude acceptable to today&#8217;s standards. We are moving towards a dictatorship of relativism which does not recognize anything as certain and which has as its highest goal one&#8217;s own ego and one&#8217;s own desires. However, we have a different goal: the Son of God, true man. He is the measure of true humanism. Being an &#8220;Adult&#8221; means having a faith which does not follow the waves of today&#8217;s fashions or the latest novelties. A faith which is deeply rooted in friendship with <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Christ\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Christ\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Christ<\/a> is adult and mature. It is this friendship which opens us up to all that is good and gives us the knowledge to judge true from false, and deceit from truth.<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<p>On June 6, 2005, Pope Benedict XVI told educators:<\/p>\n<dl>\n<dd>Today, a particularly insidious obstacle to the task of education is the massive presence in our society and culture of that relativism which, recognizing nothing as definitive, leaves as the ultimate criterion only the self with its desires. And under the semblance of freedom it becomes a prison for each one, for it separates people from one another, locking each person into his or her own &#8216;ego&#8217;.<sup id=\"cite_ref-49\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_note-49\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">[49]<\/a><\/sup><\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<p>Then during the <a title=\"World Youth Day 2005\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/World_Youth_Day_2005\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">World Youth Day<\/a> in August 2005, he also traced to relativism the problems produced by the communist and sexual revolutions, and provided a counter-counter argument.<sup id=\"cite_ref-50\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_note-50\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">[50]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n<dl>\n<dd>In the last century we experienced revolutions with a common programme\u2013expecting nothing more from God, they assumed total responsibility for the cause of the world in order to change it. And this, as we saw, meant that a human and partial point of view was always taken as an absolute guiding principle. Absolutizing what is not absolute but relative is called totalitarianism. It does not liberate man, but takes away his dignity and enslaves him. It is not ideologies that save the world, but only a return to the living God, our Creator, the Guarantor of our freedom, the Guarantor of what is really good and true.<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<h2><span id=\"See_also\" class=\"mw-headline\">See also<\/span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[<\/span><a title=\"Edit section: See also\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Relativism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=31\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">edit<\/a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]<\/span><\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"div-col columns column-width\">\n<ul>\n<li><a title=\"Anekantavada\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Anekantavada\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Anekantavada<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Anthropology\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Anthropology\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Anthropology<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Bah\u00e1&#039;\u00ed Faith and the unity of religion\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bah%C3%A1%27%C3%AD_Faith_and_the_unity_of_religion\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Bah\u00e1&#8217;\u00ed Faith and the unity of religion<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Degree of truth\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Degree_of_truth\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Degree of truth<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Factual relativism\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Factual_relativism\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Factual relativism<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"False dilemma\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/False_dilemma\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">False dilemma<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Fuzzy logic\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fuzzy_logic\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Fuzzy logic<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Graded absolutism\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Graded_absolutism\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Graded absolutism<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Heraclitus\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Heraclitus\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Heraclitus<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"John Hick\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/John_Hick\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">John Hick<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Moral relativism\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Moral_relativism\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Moral relativism<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Multi-valued logic\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Multi-valued_logic\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Multi-valued logic<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Normative ethics\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Normative_ethics\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Normative ethics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Objectivity (philosophy)\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Objectivity_(philosophy)\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Objectivism<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Perspectivism\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Perspectivism\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Perspectivism<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Philosophical realism\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Philosophical_realism\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Philosophical realism<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Pluralism (philosophy)\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pluralism_(philosophy)\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Pluralism (philosophy)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Polylogism\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Polylogism\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Polylogism<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Principle of Bivalence\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Principle_of_Bivalence\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Principle of Bivalence<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Propositional logic\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Propositional_logic\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Propositional logic<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Protagoras\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Protagoras\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Protagoras<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Relationalism\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relationalism\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Relationism<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Religiocentrism\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Religiocentrism\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Religiocentrism<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Science Wars\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Science_Wars\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Science Wars<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Scientism\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Scientism\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Scientism<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Social constructionism\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Social_constructionism\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Social constructionism<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Subjective logic\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Subjective_logic\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Subjective logic<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Subjectivism\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Subjectivism\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Subjectivism<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Two truths doctrine\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Two_truths_doctrine\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Two truths doctrine<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Worldview\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Worldview\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Worldview<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span id=\"References\" class=\"mw-headline\">References<\/span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[<\/span><a title=\"Edit section: References\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Relativism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=32\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">edit<\/a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]<\/span><\/span><\/h2>\n<table class=\"box-Citation_style plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-citation_style\" role=\"presentation\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"mbox-image\">\n<div><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/en\/thumb\/f\/f2\/Edit-clear.svg\/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png\" srcset=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/en\/thumb\/f\/f2\/Edit-clear.svg\/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/en\/thumb\/f\/f2\/Edit-clear.svg\/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x\" alt=\"\" width=\"40\" height=\"40\" data-file-width=\"48\" data-file-height=\"48\" \/><\/div>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"mbox-text\">\n<div class=\"mbox-text-span\">This article <b>has an unclear citation style<\/b>.<span class=\"hide-when-compact\"> The references used may be made clearer with a different or consistent style of <a title=\"Wikipedia:Citing sources\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citing_sources\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">citation<\/a> and <a title=\"Help:Footnotes\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Help:Footnotes\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">footnoting<\/a>.<\/span><small class=\"date-container\"><i>(<span class=\"date\">September 2009<\/span>)<\/i><\/small><small class=\"hide-when-compact\"><i> (<a title=\"Help:Maintenance template removal\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Help:Maintenance_template_removal\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Learn how and when to remove this template message<\/a>)<\/i><\/small><\/div>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<div class=\"reflist\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\">\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a title=\"Jump up\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_ref-1\" aria-label=\"Jump up\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, <a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"https:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/entries\/relativism\/\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">[1]<\/a> &#8220;The label \u201crelativism\u201d has been attached to a wide range of ideas and positions which may explain the lack of consensus on how the term should be defined.&#8221;<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a title=\"Jump up\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_ref-2\" aria-label=\"Jump up\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a title=\"Maria Baghramian\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Maria_Baghramian\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Maria Baghramian<\/a> identifies 16 (<i>Relativism<\/i>, 2004,Baghramian)<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-stanford-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a title=\"Jump up\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_ref-stanford_3-0\" aria-label=\"Jump up\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFSwoyer2003\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Swoyer, Chris (February 22, 2003). <a class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/entries\/relativism\/#1.2\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">&#8220;Relativism&#8221;<\/a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">May 10,<\/span> 2010<\/span>.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SEP_Epistemic_Relativism-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a title=\"Jump up\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_ref-SEP_Epistemic_Relativism_4-0\" aria-label=\"Jump up\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/entries\/relativism\/#EpiRel\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">&#8220;Epistemic Relativism&#8221;<\/a>. <i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">6 July<\/span> 2020<\/span>.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a title=\"Jump up\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_ref-5\" aria-label=\"Jump up\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Baghramian, Maria and Carter, Adam, &#8220;Relativism&#8221;, &#8220;The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2015 Edition)&#8221;, Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/archives\/fall2015\/entries\/relativism\/#RelAboTruAleRel\/\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/archives\/fall2015\/entries\/relativism\/#RelAboTruAleRel\/<\/a>&#8220;Relativism about truth, or alethic relativism, at its simplest, is the claim that what is true for one individual or social group may not be true for another&#8221;<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a title=\"Jump up\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_ref-6\" aria-label=\"Jump up\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/entries\/relativism\/#BriHisOldIde\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/entries\/relativism\/#BriHisOldIde<\/a><\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a title=\"Jump up\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_ref-7\" aria-label=\"Jump up\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFCollins1998\" class=\"citation news cs1\"><a title=\"Harry Collins\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Harry_Collins\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Collins, Harry<\/a> (1998-04-01). <a class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/physicsworld.com\/cws\/article\/print\/1607\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">&#8220;What&#8217;s wrong with relativism?&#8221;<\/a>. <i><a title=\"Physics World\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Physics_World\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Physics World<\/a><\/i>. <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Bristol, UK\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bristol,_UK\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Bristol, UK<\/a>: IOP Publishing<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2008-04-16<\/span><\/span>. <q>&#8230;methodological relativism &#8211; impartial assessment of how knowledge develops &#8211; is the key idea for sociology of scientific knowledge&#8230;<\/q><\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a title=\"Jump up\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_ref-8\" aria-label=\"Jump up\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=oyloiiq0CYIC&amp;pg=PA210\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Locke, Shaftesbury, and Hutcheson: Contesting Diversity in the Enlightenment and Beyond by Dr. Daniel Carey<\/a><\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a title=\"Jump up\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_ref-9\" aria-label=\"Jump up\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/2796798\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Methodological and Philosophical Relativism by Gananath Obeyesekere<\/a><\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a title=\"Jump up\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_ref-10\" aria-label=\"Jump up\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFBrown1991\" class=\"citation book cs1\"><a title=\"Donald Brown (anthropologist)\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Donald_Brown_(anthropologist)\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Brown, Donald E.<\/a> (1991). <span class=\"cs1-lock-registration\" title=\"Free registration required\"><a class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/culturalconnecti00voge\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Human Universals<\/i><\/a><\/span>. <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"McGraw-Hill\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/McGraw-Hill\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">McGraw-Hill<\/a>. <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">ISBN<\/a>\u00a0<a title=\"Special:BookSources\/0-87722-841-8\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Special:BookSources\/0-87722-841-8\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><bdi>0-87722-841-8<\/bdi><\/a>.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a title=\"Jump up\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_ref-11\" aria-label=\"Jump up\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/entries\/relativism\/#1.2\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy<\/a><\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a title=\"Jump up\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_ref-12\" aria-label=\"Jump up\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a title=\"Maria Baghramian\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Maria_Baghramian\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Baghramian, M.<\/a> <i>Relativism<\/i>, 2004, p43<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a title=\"Jump up\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_ref-13\" aria-label=\"Jump up\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.nakedpunch.com\/6\/106-108.pdf\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Interview with Bruno Latour<i>On Relativism, Pragmatism, and Critical Theory<\/i><\/a><\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a title=\"Jump up\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_ref-14\" aria-label=\"Jump up\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Baghramian, M. <i>Relativism<\/i>, 2004, p85<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a title=\"Jump up\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_ref-15\" aria-label=\"Jump up\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.asa3.org\/ASA\/education\/views\/reality.htm\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Craig Rusbult. <i>Reality 101<\/i><\/a><\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a title=\"Jump up\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_ref-16\" aria-label=\"Jump up\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Keith Dixon. <i>Is Cultural Relativism Self-Refuting<\/i>? (British Journal of Sociology, vol 28, No. 1)<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a title=\"Jump up\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_ref-17\" aria-label=\"Jump up\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.allaboutphilosophy.org\/cultural-relativism.htm\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Cultural Relativism<\/i> at All About Philosophy.<\/a><\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a title=\"Jump up\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_ref-18\" aria-label=\"Jump up\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.friesian.com\/relative.htm\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">The Friesian School on relativism.<\/a><\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a title=\"Jump up\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_ref-19\" aria-label=\"Jump up\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a title=\"The God Delusion\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_God_Delusion\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">The God Delusion<\/a>, Chapter 6<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a title=\"Jump up\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_ref-20\" aria-label=\"Jump up\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a title=\"Mere Christianity\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mere_Christianity\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Mere Christianity<\/a>, Chapter 1<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-21\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a title=\"Jump up\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_ref-21\" aria-label=\"Jump up\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/commentisfree\/2007\/may\/28\/dawkinschristmascardlist\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Richard Dawkins quoted in <i>Dawkins&#8217; Christmas card list; Dawkins at the Hay Festival,<\/i> The Guardian, 28 May 2007<\/a><\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-22\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a title=\"Jump up\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_ref-22\" aria-label=\"Jump up\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a title=\"Maria Baghramian\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Maria_Baghramian\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Baghramian, M.<\/a> <i>Relativism<\/i>, 2004<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-23\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a title=\"Jump up\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_ref-23\" aria-label=\"Jump up\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Including Julien Beillard, who presents his case on the impossibility of moral relativism in the July 2013 issue of <a title=\"Philosophy Now\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Philosophy_Now\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Philosophy Now magazine<\/a>, accessible <a class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/philosophynow.org\/issues\/97\/Moral_Relativism_Is_Unintelligible\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">here<\/a><\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-24\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a title=\"Jump up\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_ref-24\" aria-label=\"Jump up\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a title=\"David Kalupahana\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/David_Kalupahana\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">David Kalupahana<\/a>, <i>Causality: The Central Philosophy of Buddhism.<\/i> The University Press of Hawaii, 1975, pp. 96\u201397. In the Nikayas the quote is found at SN 2.150.<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-socratesdialogue-25\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a title=\"Jump up\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_ref-socratesdialogue_25-0\" aria-label=\"Jump up\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFRichard_Austin_Gudmundsen2000\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Richard Austin Gudmundsen (2000). <a class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/?id=3C-ZdOSwRJcC&amp;pg=PA50&amp;dq=Protagoras+%22what+is+true+for+you%22#v=onepage&amp;q=Protagoras%20%22what%20is%20true%20for%20you%22&amp;f=false\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Scientific Inquiry: Applied to the Doctrine of Jesus Christ<\/i><\/a>. Cedar Fort. p.\u00a050. <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">ISBN<\/a>\u00a0<a title=\"Special:BookSources\/978-1-55517-497-2\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Special:BookSources\/978-1-55517-497-2\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><bdi>978-1-55517-497-2<\/bdi><\/a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2011-01-24<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-26\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a title=\"Jump up\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_ref-26\" aria-label=\"Jump up\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFSahakianMabel_Lewis_Sahakian1993\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Sahakian, William S.; Mabel Lewis Sahakian (1993). <a class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/?id=Vi7cQMw8SwYC&amp;pg=PA28&amp;dq=Protagoras+Plato+%22what+is+true+for+you%22#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Ideas of the great philosophers<\/i><\/a>. Barnes &amp; Noble Publishing. p.\u00a028. <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">ISBN<\/a>\u00a0<a title=\"Special:BookSources\/978-1-56619-271-2\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Special:BookSources\/978-1-56619-271-2\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><bdi>978-1-56619-271-2<\/bdi><\/a>. <q>What is true for you is true for you.<\/q><\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-27\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a title=\"Jump up\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_ref-27\" aria-label=\"Jump up\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFSahakianM._L._Sahakian1965\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Sahakian, W. S.; M. L. Sahakian (1965). <a class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=6FEYAAAAIAAJ\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Realms of philosophy<\/i><\/a>. Schenkman Pub. Co. p.\u00a040<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2011-01-24<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-28\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a title=\"Jump up\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_ref-28\" aria-label=\"Jump up\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.timeshighereducation.co.uk\/story.asp?storyCode=156973&amp;sectioncode=39\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Cooper, David E., &#8220;Voodoo and the monster of science,&#8221; <i>Times Higher Education<\/i>, 17 March 2000<\/a><\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-29\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a title=\"Jump up\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_ref-29\" aria-label=\"Jump up\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Lloyd, Elisabeth. &#8220;Feyerabend, Mill, and Pluralism&#8221;, <i>Philosophy of Science<\/i> 64, p. S397.<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-30\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a title=\"Jump up\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_ref-30\" aria-label=\"Jump up\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Feyerabend, <i>Against Method<\/i>, 3rd ed., p. vii<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-31\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a title=\"Jump up\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_ref-31\" aria-label=\"Jump up\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.timeshighereducation.co.uk\/story.asp?storyCode=156973&amp;sectioncode=39\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Cooper, David E., &#8220;Voodoo and the monster of science,&#8221; <i>Times Higher Education<\/i>, 17 March 2000<\/a><\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-32\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a title=\"Jump up\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_ref-32\" aria-label=\"Jump up\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.uea.ac.uk\/~j339\/Kuhntogo.htm\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Sharrock. W., Read R. <i>Kuhn: Philosopher of Scientific Revolutions<\/i><\/a><\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-33\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a title=\"Jump up\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_ref-33\" aria-label=\"Jump up\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Kuhn, <i><a title=\"The Structure of Scientific Revolutions\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">The Structure of Scientific Revolutions<\/a><\/i>, p. 206.<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-34\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a title=\"Jump up\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_ref-34\" aria-label=\"Jump up\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Kuhn, <i><a title=\"The Structure of Scientific Revolutions\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">The Structure of Scientific Revolutions<\/a><\/i>, p. 170.<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-35\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a title=\"Jump up\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_ref-35\" aria-label=\"Jump up\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Kuhn, <i><a title=\"The Structure of Scientific Revolutions\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">The Structure of Scientific Revolutions<\/a><\/i>, p. 171.&lt;\/<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-36\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a title=\"Jump up\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_ref-36\" aria-label=\"Jump up\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Rorty, R. <i>Consequences of Pragmatism<\/i><\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-37\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a title=\"Jump up\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_ref-37\" aria-label=\"Jump up\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Richard Rorty, <i>Pragmatism, Relativism, and Irrationalism<\/i><\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-38\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a title=\"Jump up\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_ref-38\" aria-label=\"Jump up\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Rorty, R. <i>Hilary Putnam and the Relativist Menace<\/i><\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-39\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a title=\"Jump up\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_ref-39\" aria-label=\"Jump up\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/repository.kln.ac.lk\/jspui\/bitstream\/123456789\/5923\/1\/109.pdf\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">&#8220;Constructive Relativism&#8221;<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>.<\/cite><\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-40\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a title=\"Jump up\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_ref-40\" aria-label=\"Jump up\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.gwu.edu\/~ccps\/rcq\/Fish.pdf\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Don&#8217;t Blame Relativism<\/i><\/a> as &#8220;serious thought&#8221;<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-41\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a title=\"Jump up\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_ref-41\" aria-label=\"Jump up\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.physics.nyu.edu\/faculty\/sokal\/\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Sokal and the Science Wars<\/a><\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-42\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a title=\"Jump up\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_ref-42\" aria-label=\"Jump up\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.csicop.org\/si\/show\/quantum_quackery\/\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Quantum quackery<\/a><\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-43\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a title=\"Jump up\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_ref-43\" aria-label=\"Jump up\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a title=\"David Kalupahana\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/David_Kalupahana\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">David Kalupahana<\/a>, <i>Causality: The Central Philosophy of Buddhism.<\/i> The University Press of Hawaii, 1975, pp. 96\u201397. In the Nikayas the quote is found at SN 2.150.<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LevinsonAug06-44\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a title=\"Jump up\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_ref-LevinsonAug06_44-0\" aria-label=\"Jump up\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Levinson, Jules (August 2006) <i><a class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.berotsana.org\/pdf\/lotsawa_timesII_sc.pdf\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Lotsawa Times Volume II<\/a> <a class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20080724083326\/http:\/\/www.berotsana.org\/pdf\/lotsawa_timesII_sc.pdf\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 2008-07-24 at the <a title=\"Wayback Machine\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Wayback Machine<\/a><\/i><\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-45\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a title=\"Jump up\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_ref-45\" aria-label=\"Jump up\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.srigranth.org\/servlet\/gurbani.gurbani?Action=Page&amp;Param=1350&amp;english=t&amp;id=57718\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Guru Granth Sahib page 1350<\/a><\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-46\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a title=\"Jump up\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_ref-46\" aria-label=\"Jump up\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.nationalcatholicreporter.org\/word\/wyd082105.htm\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">World Youth Day News August August 21, 2005<\/a><\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-47\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a title=\"Jump up\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_ref-47\" aria-label=\"Jump up\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.vatican.va\/holy_father\/leo_xiii\/encyclicals\/documents\/hf_l-xiii_enc_18840420_humanum-genus_it.html\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Humanum genus<\/a><\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-48\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a title=\"Jump up\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_ref-48\" aria-label=\"Jump up\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.vatican.va\/gpII\/documents\/homily-pro-eligendo-pontifice_20050418_en.html\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Mass \u00abPro Eligendo Romano Pontifice\u00bb: Homily of Card. Joseph Ratzinger<\/a><\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-49\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a title=\"Jump up\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_ref-49\" aria-label=\"Jump up\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.vatican.va\/holy_father\/benedict_xvi\/speeches\/2005\/june\/documents\/hf_ben-xvi_spe_20050606_convegno-famiglia_en.html\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Inaugural Address at the Ecclesial Diocesan Convention of Rome<\/a><\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-50\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a title=\"Jump up\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relativism#cite_ref-50\" aria-label=\"Jump up\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.vatican.va\/holy_father\/benedict_xvi\/speeches\/2005\/august\/documents\/hf_ben-xvi_spe_20050820_vigil-wyd_en.html\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">20th World Youth Day &#8211; Cologne &#8211; Marienfeld, Youth Vigil<\/a><\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span id=\"Bibliography\" class=\"mw-headline\">Bibliography<\/span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[<\/span><a title=\"Edit section: Bibliography\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Relativism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=33\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">edit<\/a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]<\/span><\/span><\/h2>\n<ul>\n<li><a title=\"Maria Baghramian\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Maria_Baghramian\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Maria Baghramian<\/a>, <i>Relativism,<\/i> London: Routledge, 2004, <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">ISBN<\/a>\u00a0<a title=\"Special:BookSources\/0-415-16150-9\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Special:BookSources\/0-415-16150-9\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">0-415-16150-9<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Gad Barzilai, <i>Communities and Law: Politics and Cultures of Legal Identities,<\/i> Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2003, <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">ISBN<\/a>\u00a0<a title=\"Special:BookSources\/0-472-11315-1\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Special:BookSources\/0-472-11315-1\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">0-472-11315-1<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Andrew Lionel Blais, <i>On the Plurality of Actual Worlds,<\/i> <a title=\"University of Massachusetts Press\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/University_of_Massachusetts_Press\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">University of Massachusetts Press<\/a>, 1997, <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">ISBN<\/a>\u00a0<a title=\"Special:BookSources\/1-55849-072-8\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Special:BookSources\/1-55849-072-8\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">1-55849-072-8<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Benjamin Brown, Thoughts and Ways of Thinking: Source Theory and Its Applications. London: <a title=\"Ubiquity Press\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ubiquity_Press\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Ubiquity Press<\/a>, 2017. <a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ubiquitypress.com\/site\/books\/10.5334\/bbh\/\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">[2]<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"CITEREFBuchbinderMcGuire2007\" class=\"citation journal cs1\"><a title=\"David Buchbinder\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/David_Buchbinder\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Buchbinder, David<\/a>; McGuire, Ann Elizabeth (2007). &#8220;The backlash against relativism: the new curricular fundamentalism&#8221;. <i>The International Journal of the Humanities: Annual Review<\/i>. Common Ground Journals and Books. <b>5<\/b> (5): 51\u201359. <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">doi<\/a>:<a class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.18848%2F1447-9508%2FCGP%2Fv05i05%2F42109\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">10.18848\/1447-9508\/CGP\/v05i05\/42109<\/a>.<\/cite><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Ernest Gellner\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ernest_Gellner\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Ernest Gellner<\/a>, <i>Relativism and the Social Sciences,<\/i> Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985, <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">ISBN<\/a>\u00a0<a title=\"Special:BookSources\/0-521-33798-4\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Special:BookSources\/0-521-33798-4\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">0-521-33798-4<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Rom Harr\u00e9\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rom_Harr%C3%A9\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Rom Harr\u00e9<\/a> and <a title=\"Michael Krausz\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Michael_Krausz\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Michael Krausz<\/a>, <i>Varieties of Relativism<\/i>, Oxford, UK; New York, NY: Blackwell, 1996, <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">ISBN<\/a>\u00a0<a title=\"Special:BookSources\/0-631-18409-0\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Special:BookSources\/0-631-18409-0\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">0-631-18409-0<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Knight, Robert H. <i>The Age of Consent: the Rise of Relativism and the Corruption of Popular Culture<\/i>. Dallas, Tex.: Spence Publishing Co., 1998. xxiv, 253, [1] p. <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">ISBN<\/a>\u00a0<a title=\"Special:BookSources\/1-890626-05-8\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Special:BookSources\/1-890626-05-8\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">1-890626-05-8<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Michael Krausz\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Michael_Krausz\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Michael Krausz<\/a>, ed., <i>Relativism: A Contemporary Anthology<\/i>, New York: Columbia University Press, 2010, <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">ISBN<\/a>\u00a0<a title=\"Special:BookSources\/978-0-231-14410-0\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Special:BookSources\/978-0-231-14410-0\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">978-0-231-14410-0<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Martin Hollis (philosopher)\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Martin_Hollis_(philosopher)\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Martin Hollis<\/a>, <a title=\"Steven Lukes\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Steven_Lukes\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Steven Lukes<\/a>, <i>Rationality and Relativism,<\/i> Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1982, <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">ISBN<\/a>\u00a0<a title=\"Special:BookSources\/0-631-12773-9\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Special:BookSources\/0-631-12773-9\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">0-631-12773-9<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Joseph Margolis\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Joseph_Margolis\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Joseph Margolis<\/a>, <a title=\"Michael Krausz\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Michael_Krausz\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Michael Krausz<\/a>, R. M. Burian, Eds., <i>Rationality, Relativism, and the Human Sciences<\/i>, Dordrecht: Boston, M. Nijhoff, 1986, <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">ISBN<\/a>\u00a0<a title=\"Special:BookSources\/90-247-3271-9\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Special:BookSources\/90-247-3271-9\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">90-247-3271-9<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Jack W. Meiland\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Jack_W._Meiland\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Jack W. Meiland<\/a>, <a title=\"Michael Krausz\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Michael_Krausz\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Michael Krausz<\/a>, Eds. <i>Relativism, Cognitive and Moral,<\/i> Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1982, <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">ISBN<\/a>\u00a0<a title=\"Special:BookSources\/0-268-01611-9\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Special:BookSources\/0-268-01611-9\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">0-268-01611-9<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Markus Seidel, <i>Epistemic Relativism: A Constructive Critique,<\/i> Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014, <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">ISBN<\/a>\u00a0<a title=\"Special:BookSources\/978-1-137-37788-3\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Special:BookSources\/978-1-137-37788-3\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">978-1-137-37788-3<\/a><\/li>\n<li>HeWillAdd FromTheBroadMeadow AHelperOfMan, &#8220;In Defense of Relativity.&#8221;, CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2013, <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">ISBN<\/a>\u00a0<a title=\"Special:BookSources\/1482608359\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Special:BookSources\/1482608359\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">1482608359<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2><span id=\"External_links\" class=\"mw-headline\">External links<\/span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[<\/span><a title=\"Edit section: External links\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Relativism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=34\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">edit<\/a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]<\/span><\/span><\/h2>\n<table class=\"mbox-small plainlinks sistersitebox\" role=\"presentation\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"mbox-image\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"noviewer\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/f\/fa\/Wikiquote-logo.svg\/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png\" srcset=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/f\/fa\/Wikiquote-logo.svg\/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/f\/fa\/Wikiquote-logo.svg\/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x\" alt=\"\" width=\"34\" height=\"40\" data-file-width=\"300\" data-file-height=\"355\" \/><\/td>\n<td class=\"mbox-text plainlist\">Wikiquote has quotations related to: <i><b><a class=\"extiw\" title=\"q:Relativism\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikiquote.org\/wiki\/Relativism\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Relativism<\/a><\/b><\/i><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<table class=\"mbox-small plainlinks sistersitebox\" role=\"presentation\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"mbox-image\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"noviewer\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/en\/thumb\/4\/4a\/Commons-logo.svg\/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png\" srcset=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/en\/thumb\/4\/4a\/Commons-logo.svg\/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/en\/thumb\/4\/4a\/Commons-logo.svg\/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x\" alt=\"\" width=\"30\" height=\"40\" data-file-width=\"1024\" data-file-height=\"1376\" \/><\/td>\n<td class=\"mbox-text plainlist\">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <i><b><a class=\"extiw\" title=\"commons:Category:Relativism\" href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/Category:Relativism\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Relativism<\/a><\/b><\/i>.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<ul>\n<li><cite class=\"citation encyclopaedia cs1\"><a class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iep.utm.edu\/epis-rel\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">&#8220;Epistemology and Relativism&#8221;<\/a>. <i><a title=\"Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy<\/a><\/i>.<\/cite><\/li>\n<li>Westacott, E. <i><a class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iep.utm.edu\/relativi\/\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Relativism<\/a><\/i>, 2005, <a title=\"Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Westacott, E. <i><a class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iep.utm.edu\/c\/cog-rel.htm\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Cognitive Relativism<\/a><\/i>, 2006, <a title=\"Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.frieze.com\/comment\/article\/best_before_1995\/\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Professor Ronald Jones on relativism<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.philosophicalsociety.com\/Archives\/What%20&#039;Being%20Relative&#039;%20Means.htm\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><i>What &#8216;Being Relative&#8217; Means<\/i><\/a>, a passage from <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Pierre Lecomte du Nouy\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pierre_Lecomte_du_Nouy\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Pierre Lecomte du Nouy<\/a>&#8216;s &#8220;Human Destiny&#8221; (1947)<\/li>\n<li><a class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.bbc.co.uk\/radio4\/history\/inourtime\/inourtime_20060119.shtml\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">BBC Radio 4 series &#8220;In Our Time&#8221;, on <i>Relativism &#8211; the battle against transcendent knowledge<\/i>, 19 January 2006<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cscs.umich.edu\/~crshalizi\/reviews\/norris-against-relativism\/\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Against Relativism<\/i><\/a>, by Christopher Noriss<\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"CITEREFZalta\" class=\"citation encyclopaedia cs1\"><a title=\"Edward N. Zalta\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Edward_N._Zalta\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Zalta, Edward N.<\/a> (ed.). <a class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/entries\/relativism\/\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">&#8220;Relativism&#8221;<\/a>. <i><a title=\"\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy<\/a><\/i>.<\/cite><\/li>\n<li><a class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.friesian.com\/relative.htm\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">The Friesian School on Relativism<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.newadvent.org\/cathen\/12731d.htm\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">The Catholic Encyclopedia<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/ndpr.nd.edu\/review.cfm?id=8364\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Harvey Siegel reviews<\/a> <a title=\"Paul Boghossian\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Paul_Boghossian\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Paul Boghossian<\/a>&#8216;s <i>Fear of Knowledge<\/i><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Relativism \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0#relative, #relativo From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 Jump to navigationJump to search For the physics theory, see Theory of relativity. Part of a series on Epistemology Category Index Outline Core &hellip; <a class=\"kt-excerpt-readmore\" href=\"https:\/\/www.isvara.org\/archive\/relativism\/\" aria-label=\"Relativism\">Read More<\/a><\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":81,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[3,140],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-19583","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-english","category-area2"],"publishpress_future_action":{"enabled":false,"date":"2026-06-01 05:00:58","action":"change-status","newStatus":"draft","terms":[],"taxonomy":"category","extraData":[]},"publishpress_future_workflow_manual_trigger":{"enabledWorkflows":[]},"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.isvara.org\/archive\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/19583","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.isvara.org\/archive\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.isvara.org\/archive\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.isvara.org\/archive\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/81"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.isvara.org\/archive\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=19583"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/www.isvara.org\/archive\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/19583\/revisions"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.isvara.org\/archive\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=19583"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.isvara.org\/archive\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=19583"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.isvara.org\/archive\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=19583"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}